How long have humans been studying
the human body?
Probably
since the dawn of humanity
- Anatomy is the study of the structure of body
parts and their relationships
- Physiology is the study of the function of body
parts and how they work together
- Function relates to form and vice versa.
To understand function, it is necessary to understand form. To understand
form, it is necessary to understand function.
The Greeks
- Hippocrates : wrote of the larger viscera in ~5th
BC. He is regarded as the "Father of Medicine." In terms of anatomy, he
didn't elaborate on knowledge found in Egyptian texts (circa 1600 BC). However,
within the Hippocratic Collection, he wrote that diseases were
not necessarily of divine origin, but discusses environmental causes, such
as drinking water or weather (Airs, Waters, and Places). He also
pushed the idea that a disease can be "tracked" by observing enough cases.
Preventative medicine was discussed in Regimen and Regimen in
Acute Diseases; diet is stressed as is general living style.
- Aristotle : 4th century BC. Increased animal anatomical
knowledge through dissection.
- Herophilus : along with Erasistratus, made the first
real progress in human anatomy in the 3rd century BC. These physicians were
the first to dissect human cadavers and distinguish the functions of the
nervous and muscular system. He is the first to describe the alimentary canal
and named the duodenum. He also is the first to distinguish between
sensory and motor nerves, and also is the founder of the first anatomy school.
- Galen : in the 2nd century AD, was the most influential
physician of the ancient world after Hippocrates. Unfortunately, most
all of his dissections were animal (goats, pigs, monkeys), but he was able
to show how different muscles are controlled by different levels of the
spinal cord. He also recorded functions of the kidneys and bladder and
noted seven (of 12) pairs of cranial nerves. He showed the arteries carried
blood, not air; showed valves in the heart and observed difference in arteries
and veins. His works were used as the anatomy text for the next
several centuries.
until the Renaissance, virtually no new information was
added to the studies of anatomy and physiology.
The Renaissance
Mondino de Luzzi
: in 1315, conducted the first public dissection of a human body.
Anatomia is the first manual based on a practical dissection.
Paracelsus : tried to assert that diseases are caused
by external agents and that they could be treated with chemical agents.
He identified the symptoms of numerous diseases, including goiter and syphilis.
Called the "Father of Homeopathy" due to his belief that "like cures like."
Andreas Vesalius : had De
Corporis Humani Fabrica published in 1543. Defying Church opposition
to human dissection, he worked with Titian and a pupil to develop the
first detailed book on human anatomy. He was a huge detracted of Galen's
work, as it was "only" based on animal dissections.
Realdo Columbus : a student of Vesalius. He noted the
septum dividing the ventricles of the heart; pulmonary circulation is also
discussed in his works. However, he still believes the liver is the center
of the venous system and creates blood.
William Harvey : marks the beginning of modern physiology
with the discovery that blood circulates (in 1616). He studied the motions
of the heart and blood in a variety of animals and came to the conclusion
that the heart pumps the blood in a circular course. Because he had no microscope
in his studies, the only point missing from his Anatomical Essay on the
Motion of the Heart and Blood in Animals was the role of capillaries,
though he proposed their existence.
Marcello Malpighi : discovered
the role of pulmonary capillaries, completing the work of Harvey. Discovered
red corpuscles as well as taste buds. He also made many observations of
the microscopic anatomy of the liver, brain, kidneys, spleen, bone and
the inner ("Malpighian") layer of skin.
after the works of Harvey and Malpighi, the
world saw a virtual explosion of discoveries in anatomy and physiology.
Giovanni Alfonso Borelli : studied animal
motion. He first hypothesized that muscle contraction had its basis in muscle
fibers.
Thomas Wharton : demonstrated salivary
secretion, as did Nicolaus Steno.
Jean Baptiste Denis : in the late
1600s gave a human the first successful blood transfusion.
Giovanni Morgagni : in 1760,
at the age of 78, wrote On the Seats and Causes of Disease. He
introduces the idea of a medical history -- the life history of the patient,
the history of his disease, events connected with the final illness and
the manner of death. Morgagni establishes pathological anatomy as a branch
of anatomy.
George Cuvier : founds comparative anatomy with
the 1798 publication of his Tableau Elementaire de L'histoire Naturelle.
the late 18th and early 19th centuries saw a shortage of bodies due to
new legislation in England and the U.S. "Body snatching" begins.
Microtomy is developed in the 19th century, which expands knowledge of microscopic
anatomy
- Claude Bernard : the principle figure
in 19th century physiology. Among other things, he studied carbohydrate
metabolism and the autonomic nervous system. His most important contribution
was the idea that living things are in a stable internal state, called
homeostasis by Walter Cannon. Bernard believed that the basis of an organism's
health was the ability to maintain homeostasis. Cannon showed the body's
ability to adjust to attempt to remain in homeostasis. Bernard is regarded
as the founder of experimental physiology for his work in discovering
the role of the liver in glycogen production and the role of the pancreas.
- Henry Gray : publishes Anatomy of the Human Body, Descriptive and
Surgical in 1858. This will become the definitive text for the next
century.
- Camillo Golgi : shared the 1906 Nobel Prize with Santiago Ramon y Cajal
for their work on the structure of the nervous system. As the first to
use silver nitrate as a stain, he was able to point out nerve cell processes.
- Golgi and Ramon y Cajal ushered in the age of the brain
(nervous system). Many influential scientists followed suit, and there
were many more discoveries during the late 1800s. The late 19th century and early 20th century saw an
increased interest in immunology, as bacteriology also increased in scope.
- Ivan Pavlov : while he did pioneering studies of heart, nervous system
and digestive system physiology, he is most known for his work on reflex
reactions. He won the 1904 Nobel Prize for his study of the digestive glands.
- Charles Best : helped to isolate insulin for the treatment of diabetes.
He worked with Frederick Banting to extract the insulin from pancreatic
tissues. Banting received the Nobel Prize for this work, along with John
James Macleod, who really only provided lab space. Best was snubbed by
the Nobel Prize committee, but Banting shared his part of the prize. Best
was also responsible during WWII for starting a Canadian program of procuring
and using dried human blood serum.
- Karl Landsteiner : was awarded the 1930 Nobel Prize for his work in developing
the four primary blood types (or the classification thereof).
- Edward Kendall : did extensive research in endocrinology. His observations
led to the discovery (and subsequent isolation) of thyroxine and cortisone,
among other hormones. The discovery of cortisone led to a Nobel Prize in
1950. He shared the prize with Philip Hench and Tadeus Reichstein.